Database of adaptation options

Adaptation options proposed in the literature

Sub-system	Target areas of adaptation	General Vulnerability	Detailed Vulnerability	Adaptation Option	References
Bio-physical	Reduce stressors	Species invasion	Invasions by non-native species	Proactively control invasive species (plants, insects, diseases)	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009 Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce stressors	Species invasion	Invasions by non-native species	Proactively control the origin of trees planted in urban context (select tree species best suited to local conditions and desired ecosystem services). Not well adapted and stressed trees are more susceptible to pests and can be a route of entry for exotic pests (impact natural forests)	Tubby and Webber 2010
Bio-physical	Reduce stressors	Forest resilience	Decreased health and viability of forest ecosystems due to cumulative impacts of multiple stressors	Integrated multi-sector land management to reduce current stress factors and their cumulative impacts: 1) Regulate atmospheric pollutants or CO₂ emissions or use forest management as a CO₂ sink. 2) Manage tourism, recreation and grazing impacts. 3) Restore degraded areas to maintain genetic diversity and promote ecosystem health. 4) Reduce landscape fragmentation.	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Chapin III et al. 2006 Lemprière et al. 2013 Blate et al. 2009 Joyce et al. 2008 Konkin and Hopkins 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce stressors	Forest resilience	Decreased health and viability of forest ecosystems due to cumulative impacts of multiple stressors	Work with others to ensure that stressors outside the control of the forest manager are minimized	Ogden and Innes 2007
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Modify seed transfer zones	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Plant alternative genotypes or new species in anticipation of future climate	Ogden and Innes 2007 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Focus silvicultural investments in areas projected to have relatively stable climates	Rose and Burton 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Planting logged sites with species or populations expected to be adapted to the new climate	Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Employ vegetation control techniques to offset drought	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Enhance forest growth through forest fertilization	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Plant seedlings from a range of seed sources, particularly from more southern or lower-elevation populations; plant genetically modified species and identify more suitable genotypes	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Campbell et al. 2009 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Decreased forest growth	Adapt silvicultural rules and practices to ensure the growth rate of trees is maintained or enhanced. For instance, use pre-commercial thinning or selectively remove suppressed damage or poor quality individuals to increase resource availability to the remaining trees.	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009 Blate et al. 2009 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Underplant with other species or genotypes where the current advanced regeneration is unacceptable	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Forest productivity	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Reduce the rotation age followed by planting to speed the establishment of better adapted species	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Develop 'disturbance-smart' landscapes	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Hirsch et al. 2001 Locatelli et al. 2008 Blate et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Develop forest harvest and regeneration patterns that generate a diversity of stand ages and compositions over landscapes to reduce forest vulnerability to future insect and disease outbreaks	Ogden and Innes 2007 Campbell et al. 2009 Drever et al. 2006 Millar et al. 2007 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Actively manage forest pests	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Vary the shape and size of clearcuts, and leave patches or stream buffers to reduce vulnerability to potential for increased windthrow disturbance	Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Plant species mixes that occur following natural disturbances	Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Employ silvicultural techniques to promote forest productivity and increase stand vigour to lower the susceptibility to drought or insect attack	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Anderson and Chmura 2009 Jactel et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Plant genotypes or species that are tolerant of drought, insects and/or disease and fire	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009 Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Use prescribed burning or other fuel treatments to reduce fire risk and reduce forest vulnerability to insect outbreaks	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009 Campbell et al. 2009 Locatelli et al. 2008 Millar et al. 2007 Blate et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest productivity	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Plant broader and new mixes of tree species over landscapes	Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest productivity	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Plant species over a broader range of environments	Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest productivity	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Assisted range expansion: regional expansion of northern, inland, or upper elevational limit of species for reforestation to track climatic niches	Johnston et al. 2009 Millar et al. 2007 Pedlar et al. 2011 O'Neill et al. 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Disturbances	Change in forest structure, composition or cover	Maximize forested areas by quickly regenerating any degraded areas	Ogden and Innes 2007 Johnston et al. 2009 Campbell et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Disturbances	Change in forest structure, composition or cover	Allow forests to regenerate naturally following disturbances when possible	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Disturbances	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Enhance forest recovery after disturbances	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Manage for the maintenance of complexity and diversity of responses to changing conditions	Campbell et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Millar et al. 2007 Sarr and Puettmann 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Maintain or restore natural fire regimes where historical fire cycles have been disrupted by past fire exclusion and made them more vulnerable to severe future fires	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Campbell et al. 2009 Blate et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Minimize fragmentation of habitat and maintain connectivity	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 West et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Maintain a diverse and heterogeneous landscape (mixture of stand age, composition and structure) by applying various silvicultural techniques	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Bernier and Schoene 2009 Gauthier et al. 2009b
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Study the synchrony between trees and animals (phenology of the development) both in parasitic and mutualistic relationships with a focus on keystone species	Cleland et al. 2007 Singer and Parmesan 2010
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Minimize density of permanent road networks and decommission and rehabilitate roads to maximize productive forest areas	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Practice low-intensity forestry and prevent conversion to plantations	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Protect most highly threatened species ex situ. For instance, create artificial reserves or aboreta to preserve rare species	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Assist changes in the distribution of species by introducing them to new areas	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Maintain representative forest types across environmental gradients in reserves; protect forest largely undisturbed by human activities; protect climate refugia at multiple scales	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Rose and Burton 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Identify and protect functional groups and keystone species	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Rose and Burton 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Use silvicultural systems that maintain genetic, species and landscape diversity	Campbell et al. 2009 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Develop corridors for species migration and habitat protection; provide buffer zones for adjustment of reserve boundaries; consider riparian habitats and ecological transitional zones	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 West et al. 2009 Heller and Zavaleta 2009 Seavy et al. 2009 Vandergast et al. 2008 Blate et al. 2009
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Decreased health and viability of forest ecosystems due to cumulative impacts of multiple stressors	Maintain diversity in genes, species, and ecosystem conditions	Ogden and Innes 2007 Whitham et al. 2003 Whitham et al. 2006 Seppälä et al. 2009a Seppälä et al. 2009b
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Decreased health and viability of forest ecosystems due to cumulative impacts of multiple stressors	Implement restoration options to recover structural or compositional heterogeneity lost through past management practices	Stanturf and Madsen 2002 Burton and Macdonald 2011 Kuuluvainen 2002
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Decreased health and viability of forest ecosystems due to cumulative impacts of multiple stressors	Protect high evolutionary potential areas, including biodiversity hotspots	Vandergast et al. 2008 Chapin III et al. 2010
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Increased soil erosion due to increased precipitation and melting permafrost	Adopt practices such as maintaining, decommissioning, rehabilitating roads to minimize sediment runoff due to increased precipitation and melting of permafrost	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Increased soil erosion due to increased precipitation and melting permafrost	Limit harvesting operations to the winter to minimize road construction and soil disturbance	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Bio-physical	Enhance adaptive capacity	Forest resilience	Increased soil erosion due to increased precipitation and melting permafrost	Minimize soil disturbance through low impact harvesting activities	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Krankina et al. 1997
Human	Reduce stressors	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to declining forest growth and productivity	Decommission and rehabilitate roads to maximize forest sinks	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to declining forest growth and productivity	Enhance forest growth and carbon sequestration through forest fertilization	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to declining forest growth and productivity	Minimize density of permanent road network to maximize forest sinks	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to declining forest growth and productivity	Minimize risk of the forest ecosystem becoming a net source of carbon	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to declining forest growth and productivity	Modify thinning practices (timing, intensity) and rotation length to increase growth and turnover of carbon	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decreased health and viability of forest ecosystems due to cumulative impacts of multiple stressors	Conduct an assessment of greenhouse gas emissions produced by internal operations	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Forest fragmentation or forest landbase lost	Allocate forest landbase using a triad approach to landscape zoning; allow high-intensity forestry in productive areas projected to remain relatively stable in climate	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Rose and Burton 2009 McAfee et al. 2010 (Ch. 22)
Human	Reduce stressors	Disturbances	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Decrease impact of natural disturbances on carbon stocks by managing fire and forest pests	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Disturbances	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Identify areas where deforestation may be avoided	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Disturbances	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Identify areas where forests have been degraded and can be rehabilitated	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Disturbances	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Minimize soil disturbance through low-impact harvesting activities	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Disturbances	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Practice low-intensity forestry and prevent conversion to plantations	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Disturbances	Decrease in forest sinks and increased CO2 emissions from northern forested ecosystems due to increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Reduce forest degradation and avoid deforestation	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce stressors	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Develop the bioenergy market using wood from disturbed areas	Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Reduce stressors	Socio-economic resilience	Dependence on vulnerable goods or services	Develop marketing strategies aimed at recasting wood products as having climate-friendly, carbon-sequestering properties	Coalition bois Québec 2012
Human	Reduce stressors	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Provide opportunities for forest management activities to be included in carbon trading systems	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Conduct reciprocal transplant experiments for key species	Cleland et al. 2007
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Conduct research comparing tree species growth and regeneration at the margins of species ranges	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Develop experiments (e.g., planting and silvicultural trials) that test management approaches for enhancing resilience or facilitating	Campbell et al. 2009 Burton et al. 2010 (Ch. 14)
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Study changes in ecosystem transition areas	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Alteration of plant and animal distribution	Develop a gene management program to maintain diverse gene pools	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decreased forest growth	Focus management on currently productive sites and those likely to remain more productive under future climates, and reduce efforts on poor sites	Johnston et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Decreased forest growth	Include climate variables in growth and yield models in order to have more specific predictions on the future development of forests	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	More/earlier snow melt resulting in changes in the timing of peak flow and volume in streams	Examine the suitability of current road construction standards and stream crossings to ensure they adequately mitigate the potential impacts on fish and potable water of changes in timing and volume of peak flows	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston and Williamson 2005
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Bank surplus seed	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Assist population expansion: movement of populations within a species range to improve productivity and health in new climates	Johnston et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Use genomics approaches to generate genetic data and molecular tools for i) identifying forest tree species and populations that are vulnerable to climate change, ii) supporting breeding programs and migration initiatives, and iii) refining models used to predict species distribution and productivity under climate change.	Namroud et al. 2008 Pelgas et al. 2011 Prunier et al. 2011
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Adapt silvicultural rules and practices to maintain optimum species-site relationships	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Review genetic guidelines for reforestation: relax rules governing the movement of seed stocks from one area to another; examine options for modifying seed transfer limits and systems	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Blate et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Change in goods and services provided by forest ecosystems	Populations or species are no longer suited to site conditions	Design and establish long-term multi-species/seedlot trials to test improved genotypes across a diverse array of climatic and latitudinal environments	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Campbell et al. 2009 Ste-Marie 2011
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Accessing the resources	Forest closure	Re-assess regional fire danger and prepare for reduced harvesting periods	Wotton et al. 2010
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Accessing the resources	Road access	Prepare for reduced winter harvest	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Lemmen et al. 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Accessing the resources	Road access	Redesign roads and trails to withstand increased rainfall intensity	Blate et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Accessing the resources	Road access	Re-assess river and stream peak flows and link them to bridge and road design standards	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Accessing the resources	Road access	Re-assess terrain stability maps in light of changing ground conditions associated with climate change	Ogden and Innes 2007
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Accessing the resources	Road access	Avoid constructing roads in landslide-prone terrain where increased precipitation and melting of permafrost may increase hazard of slope failure	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Include climate change considerations when planning, constructing, or replacing infrastructure	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Blate et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Include disturbances in management rules and forest management plans; develop an enhanced capacity for risk management; apply ecosystem management approaches	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Campbell et al. 2009 Kolström et al. 2011 Bernier and Schoene 2009 Gauthier et al. 2009b
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Develop fire-smart landscapes around communities; develop strategies at the wildland-urban interface	Hirsch et al. 2001
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	At the operational level, plan logging, salvage logging and environmental protection with disturbance-triggered contingencies in mind	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Le Goff et al. 2005 Lindenmayer et al. 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Breed for pest resistance and for a wider tolerance to a range of climate stresses and extremes in specific genotypes	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Protect higher value areas from fire through fire-smart techniques	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Adjust harvest schedules to harvest stands most vulnerable to insect outbreaks	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Reduce disease losses through sanitation cuts that remove infected trees	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Develop technology to use altered wood quality and tree species composition, modify wood processing technology	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Account for disturbance losses at all stages of planning	Savage et al. 2010 Raulier et al. 2013
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Prepare for variable timber supply	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Plan landscapes to minimize the spread of insects and diseases	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Increase the proportion of salvage logging as part of overall sustainable harvest levels	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Disturbances	Increased frequency and severity of forest disturbances	Shorten the rotation length to decrease the period of stand vulnerability to disturbances and to facilitate change to more suitable species	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Species invasion	Invasions by non-native species	Enhance the early detection and response strategy associated with non-native invasive species	Blate et al. 2009
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Species invasion	Invasions by non-native species	Adopt policies to ensure that disruption of ecosystems by non-native species is avoided to maintain integrity	Ogden and Innes 2007
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Development of forest management plans that reduce vulnerability of forests and forest-dependent communities to climate change	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Establish objectives for the future forest under climate change	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Reduce sensitivity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Make choices about the preferred tree species composition for the future	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Increase awareness about the potential impact of climate change and encourage proactive actions, e.g., climate change impacts on the fire regime and proactive actions in regard to fuel management and community protection	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Establish stronger relationships between scientific researchers and management to help identify resilience thresholds for key species and ecosystem processes, determine which thresholds will be exceeded, prioritize projects with a high probability of success and identify species and vegetation structures tolerant of increased disturbances	Littell et al. 2012 Blate et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Enhance awareness and understanding of climate change in the forest sector: communications, debate, education	Chapin III et al. 2006 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Lemprière et al. 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Enhance dialogue amongst stakeholder groups to establish priorities for action on climate change adaptation in the forest sector	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Chapin III et al. 2006 Chapin III et al. 2010
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Support research on climate change, climate impacts and climate change adaptations and increase resources for basic climate change impacts and adaptation science	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Increase technical understanding by developing educational material for employees and stakeholders	Blate et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Combine ecosystem process models with spatial landscape models. Link ecosystem process models to spatially explicit landscape models	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Delineate bioclimatic envelopes and project changes	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Develop process-based models of species range shifts and ecosystem changes	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Historical information from extreme climate effects may provide some information about cumulative responses to climate conditions outside the bounds of recent history	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Encourage societal adaptation	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Enhance capacity to undertake integrated assessments of system vulnerabilities at various scales	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Review forest policies, forest planning, forest management approaches and society's institutions to assess our ability to achieve social objectives under climate change	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Support knowledge exchange, technology transfer, capacity building and information sharing on climate change; maintain or improve capacity for communications and networking	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Incorporate new knowledge about the future climate and forest management plans and policies	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Johnston et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Include climate variables in growth and yield models and incorporate climate change effects into long-term timber supply analysis and forest management plans	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Expand conservation education programs to include climate change	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Lemprière et al. 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Agree on standardized climate scenarios for analysis	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Lemprière et al. 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Foster learning and innovation and conduct research to determine when and where to implement adaptive responses	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Chapin III et al. 2006 Chapin III et al. 2010 Gray 2005 Brown 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of awareness or poor access to information	Anticipate variability and change and conduct vulnerability assessments at a regional scale	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Engage the public in a dialogue on values and management under a changing climate	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Remove barriers and develop incentives to adapt to climate change; encourage local and community-based adaptation planning, informed by local knowledge and empowered with more local control	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Burton et al. 2010 (Ch. 14)
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Provide incentives and remove barriers to enhancing carbon sinks and reducing greenhouse gas emissions	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Chapin III et al. 2006
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Involve the public in an assessment of forest management adaptation options	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Provide long-term tenures to encourage long-term considerations within short-term decisions	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Incorporate climate change into land use plans and consider the possibility of land use changes at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Prepare for increases in wildfire activity	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Lack of flexibility	Redesign and/or implement society's institutions that facilitate cost-effective and economically efficient adaptation and that provide forest managers with the tools necessary to achieve forest management objectives	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Incorporate long-term climate change into wildland fire planning	Blate et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Develop flexible forest management policies, plans and practices that are capable of responding to changes	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Burton et al. 2010 (Ch. 14) Seppälä 2009 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Practice adaptive management: rigorously combine management, research, monitoring, and means of changing practices so that credible information is gained and management activities are modified by experience; include risk assessment practices	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Chapin III et al. 2006 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Study population responses to climate change with a focus on growth, reproductive processes, recruitment rates, mortality, and demography, particularly for ecologically significant (keystone and dominant) species and economically important species	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Monitor changes in hydrologic regimes, such as shifts in seasonal precipitation patterns (i.e., rain vs. snow) and changes in precipitation intensity, in relation to their impact on ecosystems, vegetation, and tree growth	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Monitor changes in key processes (e.g., nutrient and hydrological cycles) for vulnerable ecosystems, and measure their effects on vegetation	Campbell et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Adopt risk assessment and adaptive management principles	Locatelli et al. 2008 McAfee et al. 2010 (Ch. 22)
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Measure, monitor and report on indicators of climate change and sustainable forest management to determine the state of the forest and identify when critical thresholds are reached	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Develop flexible forest management plans and policies that are capable of responding to changes	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Evaluate the adequacy of existing environmental and biological monitoring networks for tracking the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems, identify inadequacies and gaps in these networks and identify options to address them	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Bernier and Schoene 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Modify objectives for sustainable forest management, including reduction of expectations and the means we use to achieve them	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010 Burton et al. 2010 (Ch. 14)
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Increased uncertainty	Monitor to determine when and what changes are occurring	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Dependence on vulnerable goods or services	Evaluate recreational impact on ecosystems under a changing climate	Blate et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Dependence on vulnerable goods or services	Expand recreational opportunities across all four seasons	Blate et al. 2009
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Dependence on vulnerable goods or services	Adopt a holistic management approach such as ecosystem management that balances timber and non-timber goods and services	Ogden and Innes 2007
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Dependence on vulnerable goods or services	Diversify economy (forest, regional)	Ogden and Innes 2007 Ogden and Innes 2008 Chapin III et al. 2006
Human	Enhance adaptive capacity	Socio-economic resilience	Dependence on vulnerable goods or services	Diversify society	Williamson et al. 2009 Johnston et al. 2010